The preservation of health is a duty. Few seem conscious that there is such a thing as physical morality.

--Herbert Spencer (18201903), English philosopher

It should come as no surprise that the Cancer Prevention Diet and the Anti-Aging Diet are identical. Both emphasize the New Four Food Groups: grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. These plant-derived foods furnish copious quantities of cancer-fighting nutrients. Plus, both diets are fiber-rich, low-fat, and sugar-free, with most of their calories coming from unprocessed starchy foods such as beans, corn, pasta, potatoes, rice, squash, wheat, and whole oats.

As I explained in the previous chapter, some foods promote cancer while other foods prevent it. By embracing the former and avoiding the latter, as well as taking supplements, you can dramatically reduce your risk of cancer. And you have an abundance of incredibly delectable foods to choose from--foods that embellish your table while souping up your cancer defenses.

Attacking on All Fronts

Of the many thousands of chemical molecules in foods, certain ones go to bat for us against cancer. They include the essential nutrients (vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, and amino acids), plus a vast array of nonessential nutrients called phytochemicals. These anti-cancer compounds can be divided into three categories, based on where they interrupt the cancer formation process. Many belong to more than one group.

The first group prevents the formation of carcinogens from precursor molecules. For example, vitamin C stops nitrates from becoming carcinogenic nitrosamines.

The second group, called blocking agents, stops carcinogens from getting to the target site where they would initiate cancer. These compounds activate enzymes that chew up carcinogens and spit them out in harmless pieces. Flavonoids, glutathione, indoles, phenols, terpenes, and thiols are examples of blocking agents.

The third group, suppressing agents, blocks the progression of a cancer after it has begun. Suppressing agents include retinoids (vitamin A and its derivatives), beta-carotene, protease inhibitors, selenium, calcium, flavonoids, plant sterols, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).

Despite the abundance of research demonstrating that these and other plant-derived compounds certainly do protect against cancer, nutrition researchers are just now beginning to unlock the secrets of how they do it. Studies have shown that anti-cancer nutrients can do the following:

• Block metastasis-promoting enzymes produced by cancer cells (metastasis refers to the spread of cancer from one body part to another)

• Detoxify or inactivate carcinogenic molecules by scavenging free radicals and/or preventing oxidation

• Encourage DNA repair

• Inhibit tumor growth factors

• Interfere with the binding of carcinogens to cells

• Nourish the immune system, enhancing its anti-cancer surveillance function

• Provide mechanical protection for the body from exposure to carcinogens (for example, fiber sops up carcinogens like a sponge and removes them, preventing irritation of the intestinal wall and absorption)

• Strengthen natural barriers to carcinogens (for example, vitamin B₆ strengthens the mucous membranes)

Phytochemicals: Plant-Borne Prevention

You won't find phytochemicals listed on food labels. Actually, that may be a good thing. With names like "anthocyanidins," "glucosinates," and "isoflavones," these compounds sound kind of scary. But as scientific research unfolds, hundreds of these naturally occurring nutrients are being shown to protect us not only from cancer but also from most of the other diseases associated with aging.

One reason scientists are so excited about phytochemicals is their apparent ability to stop a cell's conversion from healthy to cancerous. Although we still have a lot to learn about these compounds (like what all of them are and exactly how they work), the compelling fact remains that people who eat large quantities of fruits and vegetables experience tremendous reductions in cancer risk.

What is the difference between phytochemicals and other nutrients? From the dawn of the age of nutritional science (which I rather arbitrarily define as the turn of the twentieth century, when Casimir Funk discovered the first vitamin) through the 1980s, researchers made a clear distinction between essential nutrients and nonessential nutrients. We need essential nutrients to survive. We may get some health benefits from nonessential nutrients, but we can stay alive without them.

As researchers discovered more plant-derived compounds that straddled the two definitions, the essential/nonessential logic got more and more tortured. For example, some phytochemicals were classified as vitamins: Flavonoids were named vitamin P, while the glucosinolates and indoles in cabbage were dubbed vitamin U (because they cured ulcers). If a nutrient had no clearly defined deficiency syndrome associated with it, it lost its vitamin designation and was relegated to the lesser ranks of the nonessential.

Certain nutrients with a spectrum of molecular types--such as the tocopherols (vitamin E) and carotenoids--escaped this fate. They retained their essential status because one of their components appeared necessary for life. For example, of hundreds of carotenoids, beta-carotene--the one that most closely resembles vitamin A--was inappropriately singled out for special attention because it fit the model.

Meet the Cancer "Phyters"

With the advent of the phytochemical revolution, the boundary lines between essential and nonessential nutrients have become forever blurred. Although phytochemicals do not have deficiency syndromes associated with them, they nevertheless are absolutely indispensable to slowing aging and preventing chronic degenerative diseases, of which cancer is the prototypical example.

Scientists now realize that foods contain a broad spectrum of nutrients, each of which makes a unique contribution to healing. Some are essential, others are not--unless you want to avoid cancer (or extend your life span), in which case they're all essential.

That said, let's take a closer look at some of the major categories of the known anti-cancer phytochemicals, in order of importance.

Phenols. The red, blue, and violet colors that you see in eggplant, grapes, raspberries, and strawberries are phenols. These compounds protect the DNA in our cells from damage by carcinogens.

Phenolic compounds in the spice turmeric inhibit both cancer development and tumor promotion. Likewise, the catechins in green tea are tumor-inhibiting phenols.

Isoflavones. Tofu, tempeh, soy milk, and other soy products are rich in isoflavones, a subclass of phenols that can switch off the growth of cancer cells. The amazing soy isoflavone genistein has been found to suppress the growth of most types of cancer cells, including breast, lung, prostate, colon, skin, and leukemia. And by inhibiting angiogenesis (the growth of new capillaries in tumors), genistein blocks the progression of malignant tumors that have already formed. (The effectiveness of shark cartilage in treating cancer is likewise attributed to its antiangiogenesis effect.)

Thiols. Members of the Allium family (chives, leeks, garlic, onions, and shallots) and cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and turnips) contain thiols. This collection of sulfur-containing compounds possesses anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic properties. Thiols also inhibit tumor growth and bolster immune responsiveness.

Anthocyanidins. These compounds--a subgroup of flavonoids--serve as antioxidants, neutralizing free radicals and blocking cancer initiators and promoters. Anthocyanidins from pine bark and grape seeds are reputed to be the most effective naturally occurring free radical scavengers known. They can scarf up free radicals 50 times faster than vitamin E. Other food sources of anthocyanidins include apples, beans, blueberries, cranberries, grapes, peaches, plums, raspberries, rhubarb, and strawberries.

Glucosinolates. These phytochemical heavy-hitters, found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower, regulate and coordinate the activities of immune cells. Glucosinolates are transformed into other cancer-protective compounds--most notably sulforaphane, which blocks tumor-promoting enzymes.

Genistein and daidzein, another soy isoflavone, are powerful free radical squelchers. Studies have shown that regular soy-eaters are less likely to develop cancers of the breasts, lungs, stomach, uterus, prostate, colon, and rectum.

For these reasons, soy foods are staples for my family. By putting soy milk on our breakfast cereal, eating tempeh sandwiches and soy burgers for lunch, and scarfing delectable vegetable and tofu stir-fries for dinner, we're reaping the unparalleled health benefits of the magical soybean.

Terpenes. Widely dispersed throughout the plant kingdom, terpenes (of which the 600-plus member carotenoid family is just one example) are powerful antioxidant compounds. They protect against the free radical damage that initiates and promotes cancer. You'll find terpenes in grains, green vegetables, and soy.

The Top Phyto Foods

All plant-derived foods supply phytochemicals. But some foods have exceptionally high concentrations of these anti-cancer compounds. The following figure prominently in the Cancer Prevention Diet. They're listed in order of importance.

Garlic

Garlic's health-giving properties are unsurpassed by any other single food. So step aside, broccoli, carrots, soybeans, and tomatoes: You're special indeed, but the "stinking rose" is not only a food but also a potent natural medicine. Garlic helps prevent cancer, strengthens the cardiovascular system, supports the immune system, and is a powerful natural antibiotic.

Garlic contains a veritable arsenal of potent sulfur compounds that scavenge free radicals, increase the enzymes that break down carcinogens, and provide extra pizzazz to cancer-fighting immune cells. One of these compounds, diallyl disulfide, is among the most potent tumor growth suppressors known. (Chives, leeks, onions, scallions, and shallots contain similar but less potent versions of garlic's anti-cancer constituents.)

Make garlic a daily ritual. Eat it raw, steamed, or microwaved. Use it to spiff up almost any dish containing vegetables or beans. Chop it or mince it, then toss it into salads and stir-fries.

You needn't be put off by garlic's pungency or the hassle of removing its outer skin. I've discovered that popping a few unshelled cloves (or an entire flower) into the microwave for 5 to 10 seconds per clove solves both problems: The garlic easily slides out of the shell, and it tastes milder. My eight-year-old daughter won't touch the raw herb, but she really likes it this way--and she has had fewer winter colds since she started eating it.

If you really don't like the odor or the taste of garlic, you can opt for enteric-coated capsules instead. For more information about garlic, including dosage recommendations, refer to chapter 28.

Cruciferous Vegetables

Almost all vegetables have anti-cancer effects. But the crucifers, having repeatedly proven their powerful cancer-fighting properties, are simply the best. The most familiar members of the crucifer family are broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower. Lesser known but equally important are bok choy, Chinese cabbage, collards, kale, kohlrabi, mustard greens, rutabaga, turnip greens, turnips, and watercress.

So called because their flowers are shaped like crosses, the cruciferous vegetables contain loads of vitamins A and C, beta-carotene, and fiber. They're also rich in indoles, isothiocyanates, and sulforaphane, all powerful cancer-blocking phytochemicals.

Although their mechanisms remain something of a mystery, these compounds apparently employ several means of thwarting tumor growth. In mice experiments, indoles blocked the growth of experimentally induced cancers of the lungs and stomach. Numerous other research studies have convincingly demonstrated the cancer-preventive properties of the crucifer family.

The most potent crucifer is broccoli, the florets of which are concentrated sources of the anti-cancer compound sulforaphane. Sulforaphane is sensitive to heat: Microwaving removes about half of the phytochemical from the vegetable; boiling or steaming removes even more. Frozen broccoli has no sulforaphane at all. Your best bet is to eat your broccoli raw.

As for the other crucifers, you can steam or microwave them. Serve them with rice or beans or all by themselves.

Soy Foods

The soybean, a staple in Asian countries, was discovered in the West only around the turn of the twentieth century. Soy is the only bean--and the only plant-derived food--that sports a complete protein.

Soy foods offer what is arguably the most powerful cancer protection available. This legume contains several categories of anti-cancer compounds, including isoflavones, phytates, and protease inhibitors.

The isoflavones, of which genistein is the best known, can prevent just about every kind of cancer. Even more amazing, they can actually instruct cancer cells to return to normal.

Another group of isoflavones, the phytoestrogens, block estrogen receptor sites on cells. This prevents cancer-causing hormones from "docking" on the cells, where they do their dirty work.

Soybeans, soybean oil, and tofu are also excellent sources of the immune-enhancing, cancer-preventing omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids.

All of this information suggests that hefty servings of soy should be incorporated into any cancer treatment program. Though soy conjures up images of tofu in most people's minds, this very old bean takes literally dozens of forms. There are so many interesting soybean products on health food store shelves these days that it's fairly easy to include soy in your daily diet. Tofu burgers, tofu hot dogs, and tofu enchiladas and tamales come frozen, so they're perfect for quick microwavable meals. And don't forget soy cheese, soy milk, and soy nuts.

Then, of course, there's just plain tofu, whose healthfulness is matched by its versatility. Use it straight out of the carton or marinate it in soy sauce with ginger and/or garlic. Toss it into salads, stir-fries, and soups. Steam it with vegetables. Put it in sandwiches. The possibilities are endless.

Other ways to experience the bountiful health benefits of soy are via tempeh, miso, tamari, and even whole soybeans, which can be cooked into soups and casseroles.

Like their soybean brethren, chickpeas and lima beans contain cancer-preventive isoflavones, phytates, and protease inhibitors. You can buy them dry, but canned versions cook up faster and easier. Mix them with kidney beans and green beans for a bean salad. Or make hummus, a chickpea spread that's delicious as a sandwich filling or with just about any vegetable in a pita pocket. Spread hummus on a warm whole-wheat tortilla, add some diced vegetables (such as broccoli, lettuce, and tomatoes), roll it up, and voilà--you have a quick, nutritious meal.

Apples

Corny as it may seem, an apple a day really does keep the doctor away. Or, to modernize this old saw, an apple a day keeps the oncologist away.

Apples contain an abundance of anti-cancer phytochemicals: anthocyanidins, biflavans, catechins, flavanones, flavones, and flavonols (including quercetin). They also contain hefty doses of pectin and other fibers, which are cancer-preventive as well.

I am a doctor who eats an apple almost every day. I live in Sonoma County, California, near Gravenstein (as in Gravenstein apple) Highway, where apples have been a way of farming life for many years. Many of my neighbors are apple farmers, and every spring we attend the local Apple Blossom Festival.

Beside eating fresh whole apples, I snack on applesauce. I sometimes pour apple juice on my cereal, as an alternative to soy milk and rice milk. Two of my favorite desserts are Sebastopol Apple Crisp and Cinnamon-Baked Apples (see the recipes on pages 533 and 536).

Tomatoes

Of the more than 700 carotenoids found in fruits and vegetables, the three most abundant in the human body are alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lycopene. Though all three are powerful free radical scavengers, lycopene weighs in as one of the most important anti-cancer phytochemicals. It's twice as effective as beta-carotene at neutralizing singlet oxygen, the nastiest cancer-causing free radical around.

Lycopene is the pigment that makes tomatoes and watermelon red and pink grapefruit pink. It is also found in small amounts in apricots and guava. In fact, relatively few plant species contain significant quantities of this powerful anti-cancer nutritional weapon. Tomatoes are the best source because they have by far the highest concentrations and are the most consistently available.

First harvested in the Andes by the Incas, tomatoes now come in more than 2,000 varieties. You have to wonder whether the French, in dubbing tomatoes pommes d'amours ("love apples"), had any inkling of the fact that the highest lycopene concentrations in the human body are found in the male prostate gland. Indeed, lycopene provides powerful protection against prostate cancer. (Men over age 50, who face a 30 percent chance of developing prostate cancer, would do well to include a tomato or two in their daily diets.)

A test called an antioxidant profile assesses blood levels of lycopene as well as the other main antioxidant nutrients (vitamin C, vitamin E, coenzyme Q₁₀, alpha-carotene, and beta-carotene). The results of the test indicate how well your antioxidant defenses are protecting you against free radicals. This, in turn, serves as an important measure of your rate of aging. (For more information about the antioxidant profile, see chapter 12.)

A big bonus with lycopene is that it is relatively heat-stable. Whereas most other phytochemicals (such as the sulforaphane in broccoli) must be consumed with as little cooking as possible, lycopene stands up well to heat. So you can enjoy tomato sauce and paste in pastas, casseroles, soups, stews, and even pizza.

The wisdom of increasing tomato consumption as an anti-cancer strategy is reinforced by numerous studies showing that people who eat lots of tomatoes have half the cancer risk of people who don't.

Protection You Can't Live Without

Beyond the phytochemicals, other nutrients figure prominently in the Cancer Prevention Diet. You'll want to make sure that you're getting optimum amounts of the following vitamins and minerals from foods as well as supplements.

Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene

Vitamin A and beta-carotene are the best known and most important members of the retinoid family. The retinoids--active forms of vitamin A--were the first nutrients to cause a stir of excitement among cancer researchers. They protect against most cancers, including the most common ones: breast, prostate, colon, rectum, skin, bladder, larynx, and esophagus. The carotenoids are especially potent protectors against lung, stomach, and cervical cancers.

Retinoids appear to have the ability not only to slow the growth of existing tumors but also to reverse cancer in its early stages. Coupled with vitamins C and E, their synergistic free radicalscavenging buddies, carotenoids can trap and destroy cancer-causing chemicals with extreme efficiency.

Study after study has corroborated beyond any doubt the link between low carotenoid levels and high cancer rates. Researchers examining populations of people with low intakes and low blood levels of vitamin A and beta-carotene found dramatically high cancer rates. Likewise, depriving laboratory animals of these nutrients drives up their cancer rates.

Fortunately, carotenoids are widespread within the plant world, where they protect plants' delicate tissues from free radical damage from the sun's rays. Some of the beta-carotene in the plant-derived foods that you consume is transformed into retinol, or vitamin A--the form we humans need. A beta-carotene molecule looks like two vitamin A molecules stuck together. Your body cleaves the bond, converting the beta-carotene (also known as pro-vitamin A) into vitamin A. Your body, in its wisdom, knows exactly how much vitamin A you need. It makes that amount and no more. The remaining beta-carotene is added to the body's roving pool of antioxidant phytochemicals.

The health of your immune system depends on adequate supplies of vitamin A and the other retinoids. How does vitamin A boost immune function? As a free radical scavenger par excellence, it neutralizes carcinogenic chemicals before they can do harm. Both vitamin A and beta-carotene help keep the antibody levels and T lymphocyte count high. This is crucial because antibodies deactivate carcinogens and T lymphocytes kill cancer cells as they are formed.

Vitamin A is also essential for the proper growth and health of all of the body's epithelial tissues--its skin and organ linings. Most cancers begin in these structures. With chronic exposure to carcinogens and underprotection by antioxidants, they're exceptionally vulnerable to damage.

As mentioned above, any beta-carotene left over after the body's vitamin A requirements are met is absorbed unchanged into the bloodstream. There, the molecules circulate throughout the body like millions of miniature Star Wars weapons, seeking out and neutralizing free radicals by the trillions. Beta-carotene is extremely proficient at this, squelching even the nastiest species of radicals (singlet oxygen) with ease.

Considering the overwhelming amount of published, peer-reviewed scientific evidence in support of carotenoids--not to mention the nutrients' total safety--you'd think that supplementation would be officially recommended. But it isn't.

Vitamin A and beta-carotene have similar but not identical effects in the body, so both are necessary. Unfortunately, the best food sources of vitamin A--red meats, liver, poultry, fish, and milk--are at cross-purposes with cancer prevention. (All are high in fat and protein, low in fiber.) Therefore, I recommend taking a relatively small amount (5,000 to 10,000 international units) of supplemental vitamin A per day, coupled with beta-carotene and mixed carotenoids. Again, your body can use the beta-carotene to make extra vitamin A, if it needs to. At doses above 50,000 international units per day, vitamin A can cause reversible toxicity in some people. So always keep your daily dose well below that number.

As for beta-carotene, green and yellow vegetables--leafy greens, carrots, and sweet potatoes--are top-notch food sources. But because dietary shortfalls of the nutrient are common, you should consider supplementation, too. Beta-carotene supplements are quite safe and extremely well-tolerated, even in very high dosages.

For more than 10 years, I took 100,000 international units of beta-carotene every day. With recent research highlighting the added benefits of a spectrum of antioxidants, specifically carotenoids, I still take 50,000 international units of beta-carotene and 10,000 international units of vitamin A every day. I also eat a salad made with leafy greens, carrots, and tomatoes.

B-Complex Vitamins

All of the B-complex vitamins--including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic acid, B₆, and B₁₂--play major roles in keeping the immune system strong and healthy. Most of the research to date has focused on B₆ and folic acid.

Vitamin B₆, found in apples, bananas, beans, carrots, grains, leafy greens, and sweet potatoes, plays a vital role in maintaining optimum immunity. A B₆ deficiency creates a predisposition to cancer by crippling both arms of the immune system: the humoral (B lymphocytes, which make antibodies) and the cell-mediated (T lymphocytes, which round up and destroy cancer cells).

B₆ also helps maintain immune health by strengthening the mucous membranes that line the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Bolstering the integrity of these natural barriers between us and the carcinogens in the outside world pays huge immune dividends.

Vitamin B₆ appears to be especially proficient at protecting against, and even reversing, cervical cancer. To reap the nutrient's anti-cancer benefits, you need between 25 and 250 milligrams a day.

Folic acid, another B-complex vitamin, is involved in cell division and maturation as well as the synthesis of RNA and DNA. A folic acid deficiency can cause cervical dysplasia (an early sign of cervical cancer) in women. In studies, supplements of 10 milligrams daily caused abnormal cervical cells to stop spreading and, in some women, even return to normal.

Folic acid is found in citrus fruits, dark leafy greens, spinach, broccoli, brussels sprouts, alfalfa, soybeans, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, oats, barley, brown rice, and walnuts. Aim for 800 to 2,000 micrograms a day.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C works on several levels to prevent and even help cure cancer. Dozens of studies have documented the connection between increased consumption of vitamin C and reduced risk of most cancers, including those of the mouth, esophagus, larynx, lung, stomach, pancreas, rectum, breast, cervix, and skin.

Many researchers have studied vitamin C's potent anti-cancer effect. Perhaps the best known among them is two-time Nobel laureate Linus Pauling, Ph.D. His 1979 book Cancer and Vitamin C focused on the nutrient's therapeutic and preventive properties.

Vitamin C fends off cancer through several different mechanisms. First, the vitamin is a top-notch antioxidant. It neutralizes a broad range of carcinogens, including nitrites and nitrosamines, hydrocarbons, pesticides, industrial chemicals, and air pollutants.

Second, vitamin C strengthens the "intercellular cement"--the network of collagen and fiber that literally glues cells together. In fact, the body uses vitamin C to manufacture collagen, which protects the body from cancer by walling it off.

Third, vitamin C helps prevent cancer from spreading by neutralizing hyaluronidase, an enzyme made by cancer cells to help them metastasize.

Fourth, vitamin C improves immune system functioning by enhancing T lymphocytes, the immune cells that kill cancer cells. A strong immune system is one of your best defenses against cancer.

To do all this, vitamin C is necessary in larger doses than are available from diet alone. I recommend supplements--675 to 3,000 milligrams daily in the form of ester-C.

Vitamin E

Also known as tocopherol, vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that helps prevent cancer by blocking lipid peroxidation, the oxidation of polyunsaturated fats into free radicals. Lipid peroxidation is potentially important in all cancers but is especially significant as a cause of breast and colon cancers.

Vitamin E also serves a crucial role in immune system function. A low level of the vitamin leads to impaired antibody production, inability to manufacture T and B lymphocytes, and reduced resistance to cancer and infection.

Vitamin E works synergistically with vitamins A and C and the mineral selenium, with which it has a special affinity. Selenium and vitamin E combined constitute a one-two punch against cancer. Since it is not possible to obtain optimally protective quantities of E from diet alone, I recommend supplements of 400 to 1,600 international units daily.

Note: People who are taking blood thinners should consult their doctors before taking supplemental vitamin E.

Selenium

Selenium is an essential trace mineral that plays an invaluable role in cancer prevention. Dietary selenium deficiency has been shown to increase cancer risk. Blood levels of the mineral are much lower in people with cancer than in healthy people.

Studies correlating low selenium intake with cancer abound. People who eat crops grown in selenium-deficient soil have higher cancer rates. Rapid City, North Dakota, for example, enjoys the lowest incidence of cancer among U.S. cities. Its residents also sport the highest blood selenium levels. At the other end of the spectrum, Lima, Ohio, has double Rapid City's cancer rate. Its citizens have only 60 percent as much selenium coursing through their veins.

In a survey of 27 countries, death rates for the most common cancers (those of the breasts, ovaries, prostate, colon, and rectum, and leukemia) were inversely proportional to dietary selenium intake. In other words, the lower the selenium intake, the higher the cancer death rate, and vice versa.

A close examination of selenium's properties reveals quite a few reasons for the mineral's cancer-preventive powers. For starters, selenium is an essential component of glutathione peroxidase, a very important cancer-fighting enzyme. What's more, selenium maximizes the effects of vitamin E, an antioxidant that, as we have discussed, has anti-cancer properties of its own.

Selenium protects us from the poisonous effects of a variety of pollutants, including the heavy metals arsenic, cadmium, and mercury. It detoxifies environmental mutagens and carcinogens, defends against free radicals and radiation, protects the liver, and supports fat metabolism. It defuses cancer-causing chemicals such as naturally occurring carcinogens, pesticides, and toxins concentrated in fat tissues.

Obtaining an optimum amount of selenium from diet alone is difficult, if not impossible. You'd have to eat 20 ounces of fish, the best source of the mineral, every day to get enough. Supplements are preferable anyway, because all of that fish would put you at very high risk for an excessive intake of saturated fat, microorganism contamination, mercury poisoning, and other chemical toxicity. My advice: Take 100 to 300 micrograms of selenium per day in supplement form.

Optimum Anti-Cancer Nutrition

While the nutrients profiled above may be anti-cancer superstars, many more play indispensable supporting roles. These include the minerals calcium and zinc, the amino acids cysteine and methionine, and the essential fatty acids. Though technically not a nutrient, fiber helps rid your body of carcinogens before they do harm.

Providing your cells with optimum amounts of all of these substances will maximize your protection against cancer. But you can't get optimum amounts from diet alone--even the highly healthful Anti-Aging Diet. Eating enough foods to supply enough of even one nutrient would entail a huge caloric consumption. To get just 1,000 milligrams of vitamin C, for instance, you'd have to eat a bushel of oranges--the equivalent of a five-day supply of calories.

I discuss supplementation in a lot more depth in parts 3 and 4 of this book. For now, simply remember that foods and supplements must be equal partners in your personal anti-cancer, anti-aging program.

What's In, What's Out

No single food contains all (or even a small fraction) of the anti-cancer nutrients. In order to reap the health benefits of this vast nutritional treasure trove, you must vary your food choices. Diversity is the cornerstone of both the Cancer Prevention Diet and the Anti-Aging Diet.

To reduce your exposure to carcinogenic pesticides and other chemical additives, choose organically grown foods whenever possible. Recent studies have shown that these foods are best not only because they have no carcinogens but also because they contain significantly higher levels of cancer-preventive nutrients than conventionally grown foods.

The Cancer Prevention Diet excludes all of the foods, chemicals, and additives known to foster malignancies. In particular, it contains no foods of animal origin. These foods supply no phytochemicals or other anti-cancer nutrients, and they displace the foods that do. They pack a hefty dose of carcinogens to boot.

Foods for Thought

To help you capitalize on the anti-cancer nutrients while steering clear of the dietary undesirables, I've developed the following short list of food substitutions and suggestions. For more ideas, refer to the menu plan and recipes beginning on page 487.

• Shop for meat substitutes. Health food stores carry a great selection these days. Vegetarian burgers and soy burgers replace hamburgers. Tofu dogs fill in for one of the scariest foods of all: the hot dog. Seitan, also known as meatless meat, is made from wheat gluten. Because it has the texture of chicken or beef, it makes a healthy stand-in for these carcinogenic foods. You'll also find soy bacon, soy sausage, and even soy chili as well as frozen low-fat meatless tostadas, burritos, and tamales.

• Use soy milk, rice milk, or almond milk as a substitute for cow's milk on cereals and as a beverage.

• For breakfast, make scrambled tofu instead of scrambled eggs.

• Try this delicious cancer-fighting pizza: Spread a whole-wheat crust with tomato sauce (which supplies lycopene). Sprinkle with a small amount of soy cheese (genistein). Then add generous amounts of any of the following toppings: diced tomatoes (more lycopene), tofu (genistein), spinach (folic acid, vitamin A, lutein), parboiled broccoli (sulforaphane), green peppers (vitamin C), onions (diallyl disulfide), mushrooms (lentinan), and even pineapple (manganese).

• In a blender, mix 10 ounces of soft tofu, 10 ounces of berries (fresh or frozen), and one ripe banana for an anti-cancer berry-banana shake.

• Choose Chinese, Indian, Mexican, and Middle Eastern cuisines when eating out. Be sure to tell your server--or, better yet, the chef--that you're a vegetarian and to please go easy on the oil.

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If you're like a lot of people, you may have already reduced your consumption of red meat because of its high fat content. That's good. Because as the next chapter explains, red meat and Renewal don't mix.